Sanskrit nouns and pronouns inflect for case (विभक्ति, vibhakti) to show their syntactic role in a sentence. There are seven cases plus the vocative, making eight in all. Pāṇini's grammar adds a deeper layer by classifying the semantic roles nouns can play with respect to a verb — the kārakas (कारक). The is the surface marking; the kāraka is the underlying role.
The Seven (Plus One) Cases
Each case is named by a number in traditional grammar, corresponding to the order in which Pāṇini lists them.
- Prathamā (nominative) — the subject
- Dvitīyā (accusative) — the direct object
- Tṛtīyā (instrumental) — the means or accompaniment
- Caturthī (dative) — the indirect object or recipient
- Pañcamī (ablative) — separation, source, "from"
- Ṣaṣṭhī (genitive) — possession, "of"
- Saptamī (locative) — place or time, "in, on, at"
- Sambodhana (vocative) — direct address
Each case is signalled by suffixes that vary with the gender, number, and stem of the noun.
Singular, Dual, Plural
Sanskrit distinguishes three numbers: eka-vacana (singular), dvi-vacana (dual), and bahu-vacana (plural). The dual is used for natural pairs — eyes, hands, parents — as well as for any two things. The interaction of three genders, three numbers, and eight cases gives every Sanskrit noun a paradigm of up to 24 forms.
The Six Karakas
The kārakas are the semantic relations of nouns to a verb. Pāṇini identifies six:
1. (कर्ता) — Agent
The doer of the action. Usually expressed by the nominative in the active voice and by the instrumental in the passive voice.
Rāmaḥ pustakaṃ paṭhati (रामः पुस्तकं पठति) — "Rāma reads a book."
2. (कर्म) — Object
The entity most desired by the agent through the action; what the action affects. Marked by the accusative in active sentences.
Bālaḥ phalaṃ khādati (बालः फलं खादति) — "The boy eats fruit."
3. (करण) — Instrument
The means by which the action is accomplished. Marked by the instrumental case.
Sa kalamena likhati (स कलमेन लिखति) — "He writes with a pen."
4. (सम्प्रदान) — Recipient
The one to whom something is given or for whom the action is intended. Marked by the dative.
Brāhmaṇāya gāṃ dadāti (ब्राह्मणाय गां ददाति) — "He gives a cow to the brahmin."
5. Apadana (अपादान) — Source
The point of separation. Marked by the ablative.
Vṛkṣāt patraṃ patati (वृक्षात् पत्रं पतति) — "A leaf falls from the tree."
6. Adhikarana (अधिकरण) — Location
The locus, place, or time of the action. Marked by the locative.
Gṛhe vasati (गृहे वसति) — "He lives in the house."
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The distinction between case and kāraka is one of Pāṇini's deepest insights. A case is a morphological category — a suffix attached to a word. A kāraka is a semantic role. Most of the time the two line up neatly, but not always. The genitive, for instance, is a vibhakti but not a kāraka; it expresses general relations like possession that are not direct participants in the verbal action. Conversely, the karta can be expressed in different cases depending on whether the verb is active, passive, or impersonal.
This two-tier analysis is part of what makes Sanskrit grammar resemble a modern dependency grammar — a fact that has fascinated computational linguists for decades.
Mastering the kāraka–vibhakti system unlocks the precision of Sanskrit syntax, in which a single suffix can carry as much information as several English words.